By Dr. Mikel Maria Delgado, PhD, Dr. Nate Ritter, DVM, and Dr. Judi Stella, PhD
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One of the most important factors in caring for your dog is working with your veterinarian to develop a vaccination plan that best addresses your dog’s individual needs. The decisions you make regarding when and which vaccinations to give your dog are critical to their health and an important aspect of safe and effective preventative veterinary care. Understanding the benefits of vaccinations as well as potential risks will be helpful in establishing an open and trusting relationship with your veterinary care team and advocating for your pup’s health.
Top 3 facts you should know about vaccines
- Vaccines are safe and effective at preventing severe disease and death from viruses and bacterial infections.
- Adverse reactions to vaccines are rare, are typically mild and of short duration and may include signs such as lethargy or decreased appetite.
- Vaccines are classified as either core meaning they should be given to all dogs or non-core which are recommended depending on lifestyle factors and geographic location of the dog.
What is a vaccine?
A vaccine is a biological substance created to prevent infection or lessen the effects of an infection. Vaccines generally contain a weakened (modified live) or “killed” form of a bacteria, virus or toxin that stimulates an immune response, preparing the body for possible exposure to a disease. Vaccines also contain other ingredients, such as adjuvants, which are substances that increase the efficacy of vaccines by promoting specific aspects of the immune system. Vaccines can provide protection without the associated risks of contracting a disease.
Vaccination is the introduction of a vaccine into the body (usually via injection). This leads to immunization, or protection from disease.
Why vaccination?
The practice of widespread vaccination of animals goes back at least to the 1500s. Since then, the technology of vaccination has greatly advanced, and the beneficial health impact has been enormous. Some diseases have been all but eradicated, or their prevalence greatly reduced. Other diseases have evolved, or are still a threat, which is why vaccination continues to be the most important tool in reducing the presence of disease in our companion animal populations.
Vaccines can have different effects: from completely blocking infection of an individual, to preventing the spread of disease, to reducing the effects and symptoms of disease in an individual if they become infected. Vaccines can also prevent the spread of zoonotic disease (meaning infections that can spread from animals to humans).
To provide benefit, a large percent of the population needs to be vaccinated. When not enough members of a population are vaccinated, then diseases can re-emerge.
What are the risks of not being vaccinated?
Animals who are not vaccinated are at risk of contracting serious diseases, which can result in sickness or even death. Some dogs will need intensive care to survive infection of some diseases. Other diseases, such as rabies, are fatal in all cases.
On a population level, when a sufficient number of animals are not vaccinated, disease can spread quickly. Disease can then lead to an epidemic (large increase in prevalence among a population) or a pandemic (when an infectious disease spreads across the globe).
Since there are no medical treatments with zero risks, we must balance the risks of vaccination with the benefits. Vaccine reactions are rare, but they create concern for dog owners because they can be serious. However, the diseases which dogs are vaccinated for are also very serious, deadly and/or extremely contagious. Fortunately, scientific consensus is that vaccines are overwhelmingly safe and effective.
Some animals may experience a mild, short-term response to vaccination, such as lethargy or lack of appetite. This is usually due to the activation of the immune response, and signs usually pass within a day or two. Some individuals may have a temporary tissue inflammation at the site of the vaccine injection (local reaction). Rarely dogs may experience anaphylaxis, an acute and severe allergic response that can include hives, facial swelling and less often vomiting or diarrhea, and difficulty breathing.
Other concerns you may have about vaccination
Injection-site sarcoma is the growth of a tumor where a vaccine (or other injection) was administered. They typically happen long after the vaccination occurs, and they are much more common in cats than in dogs. Research suggests injection-site sarcomas occur in dogs at a rate of less than 1 in 5 million vaccinations.
Vaccination-induced autoimmunity: To date there is no strong evidence to suggest that vaccinations cause autoimmune disease. Breed associations with immune disorders have been documented so it is likely that both genetic and environmental factors contribute to the development of autoimmune disease.
Failure to protect: No vaccine can provide 100% protection against disease and some animals may still become infected, although the signs will be less severe. Titer tests can help identify individuals that have not responded to vaccines.
Only healthy dogs and puppies should be vaccinated. Those with fever, vomiting, diarrhea, or any other signs of illness should not be vaccinated until they are well.
Remain at the veterinary clinic for 15 minutes post-vaccination. If your dog does have a reaction your veterinarian will be able to treat them right away.
If a dog has a history of vaccine reactions, your veterinarian can assess your dog’s health status and risk of disease and weigh that against the risk of vaccination. In many cases, dogs with a history of mild vaccine reactions can be given medications to mitigate the post-vaccination response. Your veterinarian may do a skin test to determine if your dog is likely to have a reaction to a particular vaccine, and if so, try a product from a different manufacturer.
Separating vaccines into different appointments a few weeks apart may decrease the risk of a vaccine reaction. For example, administering the last parvo-distemper-adeno vaccine and the rabies vaccine at 15 weeks, and returning to start the lyme series 2 weeks later.
Titer tests are antibody blood tests that can tell you if previous vaccines are providing immunity to your dog. These can be done after the last puppy vaccine to be sure that your dog is protected or when your adult dog is due for their next booster. If the titer level indicates they are still protected you may choose not to booster.
Nomographs for timing parvovirus and distemper immunizations
Nomographs, or vaccine antibody nomographs, are blood tests conducted on the bitch to estimate the amount of antibodies she is passing to her pups. Because maternal antibodies can interfere with a puppy’s vaccine response, nomographs may help determine the optimal times to vaccinate puppies.
What vaccines should be given?
We suggest working with your veterinarian, following the guidelines of the American Animal Hospital Association (AAHA) or World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA), to develop a plan that addresses the risks associated with your dog’s lifestyle and the area of the country where you live. These guidelines were developed by a group of canine health experts, and are updated as needed to ensure that veterinarians and dog owners have access to the latest information and recommendations related to vaccination.
Core vaccines are those recommended for all dogs, regardless of lifestyle and include Rabies, Parvovirus, Canine Distemper Virus, and Adenovirus-2.
Rabies is a disease that can infect any warm-blooded animal, there is no treatment or cure, and is nearly 100% fatal. Rabies infects the central nervous system of an animal after being bitten or scratched by an infected animal. With proper vaccination rabies is 100% preventable.
The rabies vaccine is typically given SQ (under the skin). For puppies, the initial dose should be given between 12-16 weeks but not earlier than 12 weeks of age followed by a second dose within 1 year (typically given 1 year later). Thereafter, a booster every 1-3 years for the lifetime of the dog is recommended. It is important to note that rabies vaccines MUST be given by a licensed veterinarian and most states and local jurisdictions do NOT allow a veterinarian to provide an exemption for rabies vaccination for any dog, even those with medical conditions where vaccines may be contraindicated.
If your puppy or dog encounters a wild animal, seek veterinary care immediately for wound treatment and potentially a rabies booster vaccine.
Canine parvovirus (CPV), or parvo, is a highly contagious disease of the gastrointestinal tract that is often fatal in young dogs. It spreads through direct contact with the virus, which could be from direct contact with an infected dog, feces, or a contaminated surface. Infected dogs can shed the virus prior to symptoms appearing, as early as 3 days and for up to 3-4 weeks after exposure. Parvo cases can range from mild to fatal but all puppies with signs of parvo require immediate treatment because death can come very quickly. Signs include vomiting and diarrhea, lethargy, depression, lack of appetite and fever.
Canine distemper (CDV) is a highly contagious, incurable and often fatal disease that affects the respiratory, gastrointestinal, and central nervous system. It is spread through direct contact with an infected individual including through sneezing or coughing. It can also be spread through shared food and water bowls and dams can pass the virus through the placenta to their puppies. Signs include vomiting, diarrhea, thick discharge from the eyes and nose, coughing and in some cases seizures and neurologic signs.
Canine adenovirus has two variants, CAV-1 and CAV-2. CAV-1 is predominantly multisystemic causing liver disease while CAV-2 is predominantly an upper respiratory disease. CAV-1 causes more severe disease and is transmitted through direct contact with urine, feces, and nasal discharge of an infected dog. CAV-2 is associated with kennel cough syndrome and is mainly spread through airborne transmission. The CAV-2 variant is included in vaccines and will result in protection against both variants.
Signs of CAV-1 infection include decreased appetite, depression, abdominal pain, and fever. Signs of CAV-2 infection include dry, hacking cough, fever, depression, decreased appetite, nasal discharge, and in some cases conjunctivitis (inflammation of the tissues surrounding the eye).
CPV-2, CDV, and CAV-2 are typically given together in one combination or multivariate vaccine. For most puppies, it is important to vaccinate in a series beginning at 6-8 weeks of age repeating every 3-4 weeks until 16 weeks of age. This is because maternal antibodies, acquired from the mother’s colostrum, can interfere with the effectiveness of the vaccine. A booster is recommended 1 year after the last puppy vaccine and every 3 years thereafter. Work with your veterinarian to develop a vaccine plan for your puppy.
Non-core vaccines are those recommended based on a dog’s lifestyle and risk. These include Bordetella bronchiseptica (kennel cough), Leptospira interrogans (Leptospirosis), Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme), Canine Influenza (H3N8, H3N2) and Crotalus atux (Western Diamondback rattlesnake).
Bordetella is a bacterium that can cause ‘kennel cough’. The disease is very contagious and easily transmitted between dogs, especially when housed together in kennels, daycare or grooming facilities. It is typically mild and does not result in significant disease for young healthy dogs but the associated cough can persist for several weeks. Other signs include decreased appetite, lethargy, and runny nose.
The Bordetella vaccine is typically administered intranasally although it can also be administered orally and SQ. One intranasal dose is recommended with an annual booster given thereafter.
Leptospirosis is a zoonotic bacterial disease with over 250 identified serovars (subspecies). Illness can range from mild to severe and without treatment can result in death. Signs of infection include kidney and liver failure, uveitis, fever, vomiting, diarrhea, decreased appetite, and abdominal pain. Dogs living in areas where they may have contact with wild animals (including rodents), in areas of high rainfall, or that engage in outdoor activities like hunting are at increased risk.
Two doses of the leptospirosis vaccine, spaced 2-4 weeks apart and followed by annual boosters are recommended. It is important to note that there is limited cross-protection among serovars so it is recommended that the 4-serovar vaccine that includes Grippotyphosa, Pomona, Canicola and Icterohaemorrhagiae is administered over the 2-serovar vaccine.
Lyme disease is a tick-borne disease caused by a type of bacterium, Borrelia burgdorferi can be fatal. Transmission of the bacteria occurs through a tick bite. Signs of Lyme disease in dogs are generalized pain, decreased appetite, fever, and lameness. Prevention of tick bites is important to decrease risk of Lyme and other tick-borne diseases. Your veterinarian can help you establish a preventative care plan (e.g., topical or oral products, ‘tick’ collars) and help you determine if your dog needs a lyme vaccination.
The lyme vaccine should be administered as 2 doses, 2-4 weeks apart and annually thereafter.
It is recommended that your dog is tested for Lyme disease prior to being vaccinated.
Canine influenza is a highly contagious virus that is easily spread where large numbers of dogs have close contact such as boarding kennels, grooming and daycare facilities. It is transmitted through direct contact, contact with contaminated surfaces, and through the air. Signs are similar to other respiratory diseases and include cough, decreased appetite, fever, lethargy, and eye and nasal discharge. Influenza outbreaks tend to occur sporadically but move quickly through a state or geographic region before dying out. We recommend discussing the potential benefit of vaccination for influenza with your veterinarian based on local conditions. For more information and outbreak maps refer to DogFlu.com.
The Crotalus atrox (Western Diamondback rattlesnake) vaccine protects dogs from the toxins associated with rattlesnake bites. The vaccine is administered subcutaneously, typically in two doses given one month apart and annually thereafter. Dosing and frequency are dependent on body weight and risk. This vaccine should only be given to dogs with high risk of exposure to rattlesnake bites. Rattlesnake bites are considered a veterinary emergency. The vaccine offers protection, and gives dogs a better chance of fighting off the dangerous effects of a rattlesnake bite.
References and Further Resources
Dog Immunology Basics with Dr. Trisha Rettig, PhD
Vaccine-Preventable Infections & Building a Vaccine Plan for Your Dogs
Vaccines - General information
Coyne, M. J., Burr, J. H. H., Yule, T. D., Harding, M. J., Tresnan, D. B., & McGavin, D. (2001). Duration of immunity in dogs after vaccination or naturally acquired infection. Veterinary Record, 149(17), 509-515. https://bvajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1136/vr.149.17.509
Day, M. J., Horzinek, M. C., Schultz, R. D., & Squires, R. A. (2016). WSAVA guidelines for the vaccination of dogs and cats. The Journal of Small Animal Practice, 57(1), E1. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7166872/
Day, M. J. (2007). Vaccine safety in the neonatal period. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 137, S51-S56. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0021997507000618
Kruth, S. A., & Ellis, J. A. (1998). Vaccination of dogs and cats: general principles and duration of immunity. The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 39(7), 423.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1539523/
History of vaccination
Lombard, M., Pastoret, P. P., & Moulin, A. M. (2007). A brief history of vaccines and vaccination. Revue Scientifique et Technique-Office International des Epizooties, 26(1), 29-48. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17633292/
McVey, S., & Shi, J. (2010). Vaccines in veterinary medicine: a brief review of history and technology. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Small animal practice, 40(3), 381-392. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7124274/
Vaccines - Possible adverse reactions
Day MJ. Vaccine side effects: fact and fiction. Vet Microbiol. 2006 Oct 5;117(1):51-8. Epub 2006 Apr 25. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378113506001441
Edwards, D. S., Henley, W. E., Ely, E. R., & Wood, J. L. N. (2004). Vaccination and ill-health in dogs: a lack of temporal association and evidence of equivalence. Vaccine, 22(25-26), 3270-3273. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264410X04002865
Gershwin LJ. Adverse Reactions to Vaccination: From Anaphylaxis to Autoimmunity. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2018 Mar;48(2):279-290. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7114576/
Moore GE, Hogenesch H. Adverse vaccinal events in dogs and cats. Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 2010 May;40(3):393-407. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20471524/
Moore, G. E., Guptill, L. F., Ward, M. P., Glickman, N. W., Faunt, K. K., Lewis, H. B., & Glickman, L. T. (2005). Adverse events diagnosed within three days of vaccine administration in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 227(7), 1102-1108. https://avmajournals.avma.org/doi/abs/10.2460/javma.2005.227.1102
Valli JL. Suspected adverse reactions to vaccination in Canadian dogs and cats. Can Vet J. 2015 Oct; 56(10): 1090–1092. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4572830/
Nomographs
Baker, J. A., Robson, D. S., Gillespie, J. H., Burgher, J. A., & Doughty, M. F. (1959). A nomograph that predicts the age to vaccinate puppies against distemper. The Cornell Veterinarian, 49(1), 158-167.
Titer tests
Ford, RB. Antibody titers versus vaccination. Today’s Veterinary Practice. May/June, 2013. https://todaysveterinarypractice.com/antibody-titers-versus-vaccination/
Moore, G. E., & Glickman, L. T. (2004). A perspective on vaccine guidelines and titer tests for dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 224(2), 200-203. https://avmajournals.avma.org/doi/abs/10.2460/javma.2004.224.200
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